‘Bee’-yond Honeybees: Safeguarding Native Pollinators for Resilient Agriculture Systems

Challenge

Pollinators play a vital role in agriculture, with nearly 76 per cent of global crops relying on them to some extent. Native pollinator species—especially native solitary ground-nesting bees—make up the majority. However, there is a significant lack of information about these essential species, including which ones visit specific crops and their behaviour patterns. Such knowledge gaps hinder the development of effective best practices and policies tailored to the needs of native bees. Current regulations are typically informed by preexisting data on social managed honeybees. These regulations often do not apply to native bee species, the majority of which have a solitary lifestyle. Native bee species exhibit unique characteristics, including distinct foraging habits, responses to pesticides and specific habitat requirements. To create regulations that support the health of both honeybees and native bees, it is crucial to better understand native bee species.

Did You Know?

A comprehensive pesticide risk assessment incorporates the complexities associated with the full range of native pollinator species. Research on native pollinators in Southern Ontario reveals insights on pollinator biodiversity and behaviour, particularly in the face of environmental threats. New knowledge on native pollinators helps inform agricultural regulations and best practices, such as those related to pollinator habitat and pesticide application.

Research

Building on decades of pollinator research, Dr. Nigel Raine and collaborators aimed to establish baseline metrics for native pollinator populations. The project sought to quantify the ecosystem services affected by pollinator decline and assess the habitat requirements needed to support diverse wild pollinator communities within agricultural landscapes, ultimately promoting both economically and environmentally sustainable crop production. This research addressed critical knowledge gaps regarding fundamental patterns such as foraging behaviour, geographic range and species distribution. In collaboration with biodiversity experts at the University of Guelph, Raine’s team employed innovative techniques to achieve a wide range of objectives. These methods included field monitoring using malaise traps, simulations, laboratory sampling, “bee backpack” radio tracking, and DNA metabarcoding of both pollinators and pollen samples.

Results

By employing a diverse range of methods, Raine’s team was able to generate valuable insights into native pollinator biodiversity. A key contribution of the project was the establishment of baseline data on what native pollinators were associated with important crops and depended on those crop species. One innovative technique used by the researchers was telemetry (radio tracking), which helped determine which pollinators visit which crops and the foraging range of specific bee species.

In addition, laboratory testing and field studies provided crucial information about the important routes of exposure to and impacts of pesticides on native bees—data that was previously lacking. Raine’s team found that some native bees can be more susceptible to direct exposure through contact or ingestion and thus can experience more severe impacts compared to honeybees. Raine’s team examined the impact of various pesticides on several native bee species, revealing significant adverse effects from a common insecticide class known as neonicotinoids. Neonicotinoids can have direct and indirect effects on native bees by altering their learning and foraging behaviour and their reproductive output. Changes in social behaviour of bumblebees in response to pesticide exposure were also found, with critical impacts on the behaviour of the queen and the development and survival of the colony. Such depth and breadth of understanding is vital for developing refined pollinator pesticide risk assessments that include native species.

Impact

Raine’s research on the health and behaviour of native bees has significant implications for both farming practices and policy. By understanding species diversity and the various habitat and foraging needs of these bees, farmers can make informed decisions about creating pollinator-friendly habitats and engaging in land restoration efforts. Additionally, new findings on how native bee populations respond to different exposures to commonly used pesticides are the basis for calls to consider changes in pesticide regulations. Regulatory changes to pesticide best management practices will go a long way toward mitigating threats to native bees. Supporting pollinator populations will also support agricultural production of crops that have become staples in Canadian diets, benefiting both consumers and producers.

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Boyle, N. K., Pitts-Singer, T. L., Abbott, J., Alix, A., Cox-Foster, D. L., Hinarejos, S., Lehmann, D. M., Morandin, L., O’Neill, B., Raine, N. E., Singh, R., Thompson, H., Williams, N. M., and Steeger, T. (2019). Workshop on pesticide exposure assessment paradigm for non-Apis bees: Foundation and summaries. Environmental Entomology, 48(1), 4–11. https://doi.org/doi:10.1093/ee/nvy103.

Chan, S. W., Prosser, R. S., Rodriguez-Gil, J. L., and Raine, N. E. (2019). Assessment of risk to hoary squash bees (Peponapis pruinosa) and other ground-nesting bees from systemic insecticides in agricultural soil. Scientific Reports, 9(1), 11870. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-47805-1.

Crall, J. D., and Raine, N. E. (2023). How do neonicotinoids affect social bees? Linking proximate mechanisms to ecological impacts. Advances in Insect Physiology, 64, 191–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.aiip.2023.01.004.

Eeraerts, M., Chabert, S., DeVetter, L. W., Batáry, P., Ternest, J. J., Verheyen, K., Bobiwash, K., Brouwer, K., García, D., de Groot, G. A., Gibbs, J., Goldstein, L., Kleijn, D., Melathopoulos, A., Miller, S. Z., Miñarro, M., Montero-Castaño, A., Nicholson, C. C., Perkins, J. A., Raine, N. E., Rao, S., Reilly, J. R., Ricketts, T. H., Rogers, E., and Isaacs, R. (2024). Pollination deficits and their relationship with insect pollinator visitation are cultivar-dependent in an entomophilous crop. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 369,109036. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2024.109036.

Evans, L. J., Smith, K. E., and Raine, N. E. (2021). Odour learning bees have longer foraging careers than non-learners in a natural environment. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 9, 676289. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2021.676289.

Franklin, E. L., and Raine, N. E. (2019). Moving beyond honeybee-centric pesticide risk assessments to protect all pollinators. Nature Ecology & Evolution, 3, 1373–1375. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-019-0987-y.

Franklin, E. L., Smith, K. E., and Raine, N. E. (2022). How the foraging preference and activity level of bumblebee (Bombus terrestris) individuals contribute to colony flexibility under resource demand. Animal Behaviour, 194, 43–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2022.08.016.

Giménez-García, A., Allen-Perkins, A., Bartomeus, I., Balbi, S., Knapp, J. L., Hevia, V., Woodcock, B. A., Smagghe, G., Miñarro, M., Eeraerts, M., Colville, J. F., Hipólito, J., Cavigliasso, P., Nates-Parra, G., Herrera, J. M., Cusser, S., Simmons, B. I., Wolters, V., Jha, S., Freitas, B. M., Horgan, F. G., Artz, D. R., Sidhu, C. S., Otieno, M., Boreux, V., Biddinger, D. J., Klein, A.-M., Joshi, N. K., Stewart, R. I. A., Albrecht, M., Nicholson, C. C., O’Reilly, A. D., Petersen, J., Crowder, D. W., Burns, K. L. W., Nabaes Jodar, D. N., Garibaldi, L. A., Sutter, L., Dupont, Y. L., Dalsgaard, B., da Encarnação Coutinho, J. G., Lázaro, A., Andersson, G. K. S., Raine, N. E., Krishnan, S., Dainese, M., van der Werf, W., Smith, H. G., and Magrach, A. (2023). Pollination supply models from local to global scale. Web Ecology, 23, 99–129. https://doi.org/10.5194/we-23-99-2023.

Gradish, A. E., van der Steen, J., Scott-Dupree, C. D., Cabrera, A. R., Cutler, G. C., Goulson, D., Klein, O., Lehmann, D. M., Lückmann, J., O’Neill, B., Raine, N. E., Sharma, B., and Thompson, H. (2019). Comparison of pesticide exposure in honeybees (Hymenoptera: Apidae) and bumblebees (Hymenoptera: Apidae): Implications for risk assessments. Environmental Entomology, 48(1), 12–21. https://doi.org/doi:10.1093/ee/nvy168.

Lightburn, K., Van Acker, R., and Raine, N. E. (2022). The first gynandromorph record of the North American bee Hylaeus modestus (Hymenoptera: Colletidae). Journal of the Entomological Society of Ontario, 153, jeso2022003. https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/eso/issue/view/439.

Mundy, K., and Raine, N. E. (2018). A comparison of acute toxicity methodologies for Bombus spp. PeerJ Preprints, 6, e27436v1. https://doi.org/10.7287/peerj.preprints.27436v1.

Mundy-Heisz, K., Prosser, R. S., and Raine, N. E. (2022). Acute oral toxicity and risks of exposure to the neonicotinoid thiamethoxam, and other classes of systemic insecticide, for the Common Eastern Bumblebee (Bombus impatiens). Chemosphere, 295, 133771. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.133771.

Pindar, A., and Raine, N. E. (2023). Safeguarding pollinators requires specific habitat prescriptions and substantially more land area than current policy suggests. Scientific Reports, 13, 1040. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-26872-x.

Raine, N. E. (2018a). An alternative to controversial pesticides still harms bumblebees. Nature, 561, 40–41. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-018-05917-0.

Raine, N. E. (2018b). Pesticide affects social behaviour of bees. Science, 362, 643–644. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aav5273.

Raine, N. E., and Blechschmidt, L. (2021). Advancing Canadian agriculture by supporting ecological goods and services. A discussion paper developed and presented by the Arrell Food Institute at the University of Guelph. 26 pages. https://arrellfoodinstitute.ca/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/UG_Arrell-Foods_10_Ecological-Goods-and-Services_Final.pdf.

Rondeau, S., Baert, N., McArt, S., and Raine, N. E. (2022). Quantifying exposure of bumblebee (Bombus spp.) queens to pesticide residues when hibernating in agricultural soils.  Environmental Pollution, 309, 119722. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.119722.

Rondeau, S., and Raine, N. E. (2022). Fungicides and bees: A review of exposure and risk. Environment International, 165, 107311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2022.107311.

Rondeau, S., and Raine, N. E. (2024a). Single and combined exposure to ‘bee safe’ pesticides alter behaviour and offspring reproduction in a ground-nesting solitary bee (Xenoglossa pruinosa). Proceedings of the Royal Society – B: Biological Sciences, 291, 20232939. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2023.2939.

Rondeau, S., and Raine, N. E. (2024b). Size-dependent responses of colony-founding bumblebee (Bombus impatiens) queens to exposure to pesticide residues in soil during hibernation. Science of the Total Environment, 948, 174852. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.174852.

Rondeau, S., and Raine, N. E. (2024c). Bumblebee (Bombus impatiens) queens prefer pesticide-contaminated soils when selecting underground hibernation sites. Science of the Total Environment, 954, 176534. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.176534.

Siviter, H., Fisher, A., Baer, B., Brown, M. J. F., Camargo, I. F., Cole, J., Le Conte, Y., Dorin, B., Evans, J. D., Farina, W., Fine, J., Fischer, L. R., Garratt, M. P. D., Giannini, T. C., Giray, T., Li-Byarlay, H., López-Uribe, M. M., Nieh, J. C., Przybyla, K., Raine, N. E., Ray, A. M., Singh, G., Spivak, M., Traynor, K., Kapheim, K. M., and Harrison, J. F. (2023). Protecting pollinators and our food supply: Understanding and managing threats to pollinator health. Insectes Sociaux, 70, 5–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00040-022-00897-x.

Sgolastra, F., Hinarejos, S., Pitts-Singer, T. L., Boyle, N. K., Joseph, T., Lückmann, J., Raine, N. E., Singh, R., Williams, N. M., and Bosch, J. (2019). Pesticide exposure assessment paradigm for solitary bees. Environmental Entomology, 48(1), 22–35. https://doi.org/doi:10.1093/ee/nvy105.

Shearwood, J., Aldabashi, N., Eltokhy, A., Franklin, E., Raine, N. E., Zhang, C., Palmer, E., Cross, P., and Palego, C. (2021). C-Band telemetry of insect pollinators using a miniature transmitter and a self-piloted drone. IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, 69(1), 938–946. https://doi.org/10.1109/TMTT.2020.3034323.

Strang, C. G., Rondeau, S., Baert, N., McArt, S. H., Raine, N. E., and Muth, F. (2024). Field agrochemical exposure impacts locomotor activity in wild bumblebees. Ecology, 105, e4310. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecy.4310.

Wilcox, A., Newman, A. E. M., Raine, N. E., Mitchell, G. W., and Norris, D. R. (2021a). Captive-reared migratory monarch butterflies show natural orientation when released in the wild. Conservation Physiology, 9, coab032. https://doi.org/10.1093/conphys/coab032.

Wilcox, A., Newman, A. E. M., Raine, N. E., Mitchell, G. W., and Norris, D. R. (2021b). Effects of early-life exposure to sublethal levels of a common neonicotinoid insecticide on the orientation and migration of monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus). Journal of Experimental Biology, 224, jeb230870. https://doi.org/doi:10.1242/jeb.230870.

Willis Chan, D. S., and Raine, N. E. (2021). Hoary squash bees (Eucera pruinosa: Hymenoptera: Apidae) provide abundant and reliable pollination services to Cucurbita crops in Ontario (Canada). Environmental Entomology, 50, 968-981. https://doi.org/10.1093/ee/nvab045.

Willis Chan, D. S., and Raine, N. E. (2023). Sharing the wealth: Pollen partitioning in a Cucurbita pepo crop pollination system with reference to female wild hoary squash bees (Eucera pruinosa). Journal of Pollination Ecology, 34, 228–238. https://doi.org/10.26786/1920-7603(2023)751.

Managing Agri-Food Pathogens

‘Bee’-yond Honeybees: Safeguarding Native Pollinators for Resilient Agriculture Systems

Challenge

Did You Know?

Research

Results

Impact

Learn More

Principal Investigator

Nigel Raine

Collaborators

Students and Post-doctoral fellows

Partners

Research funding for Food from Thought is provided in part by the Canada First Research Excellence Fund

Research

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University of Guelph